享樂主義

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享樂主義(Hedonism)是一個哲學思想，認為享樂是人類最重要的追求。The name derives from the Greek word for "pleasure" (ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē "pleasure" + suffix ισμός ismos "ism").

[编辑] 基本概念

第一個享樂主義的基本概念是所有動作皆可被一個人會產生的享受與痛楚所決定。簡單來說，享樂主義力求將"享樂與痛苦之差"增至最大。十九世紀英國哲學家John Sturat Mill與Jeremy Bentham由他們的功利主義的倫理理論提出了享來主義的基本原理。功利主義的價值觀是享樂主義之先驅：所有行為皆是基於要給最多的人數獲得最大的快樂。儘管功利主義合乎享樂主義對快樂的追求，Bentham與Mill的享樂主義價值觀與功利主義對功利的闡釋有微小的分歧。以下是兩個享樂主義的學派： Jeremy Bentham乃其中之一的學派的創始人，argues a quantitative approach。Bentham相信快樂可以在數量上明白。最重要的是，他相信快樂的量可以用其強度乘以其持續時間計算。所以這不僅僅是快樂的數量，而是它們的強度與其持續時間亦要被考量。 享樂主義的其他擁護者，如John Stuart Mill主張"qualitative approach"。Mill相信快樂有不同的層次：稍高層次的快樂較稍低層次的快樂為佳。Mill亦主張較簡單的生物（他常以豬作為例子）可較容易地進入簡單的快樂，由於牠們不能看到生命的其他層面，故可放縱於享樂之中。稍為複習的生物傾向於使用較多的"思想"於其他的事物，故可減少其用於單純享樂的時間。所以他們較難放縱於單純的享樂。

對"qualitative approach"的批評主張其有數個問題。他們斷言在普遍的情況中，快樂並不必定要分享以共同的特性besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable". Because what is 'pleasant' is a subjective thing, differing between individuals, such critics claim that 'qualities' of pleasures are difficult to study objectively and in terms of universal absolutes. Critics of the qualitative approach cite the fact that the standards of what ought to be "pleasurable" vary between individuals, of which sexual sadism is an example, in support of their claim that pleasures cannot be distinguished with respect to their 'qualities'.

While some maintain that there is no standard for what constitutes pleasurable activities (for example, those with an interest in sadism and masochism), most contemporary hedonists believe that pleasure and pain are easily distinguished and pursue the former.

In the medical sciences, the inability to derive pleasure from experiences that are typically considered pleasurable is referred to as anhedonia.

[编辑] Predecessors

Cyrenaicism (4th and 3rd centuries B.C.), founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was one of the earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic teaching. Taking Socrates' assertion that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, Aristippus maintained that pleasure was the supreme good. He found bodily gratifications, which he considered more intense, preferable to mental pleasures. They also denied that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans.

Epicureanism is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism. Epicurus identified pleasure with tranquillity and emphasized the reduction of desire over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the highest good are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. He stressed that it was not good to do something that made one feel good if, by experiencing it, one would belittle later experiences and make them no longer feel good. For example, too much sex might later decrease interest in sex, which may cause one to be dissatisfied with one's sexual partner leading to unhappiness.

[编辑] Hedonism and Egoism

Hedonism can be conjoined with either psychological or ethical egoism to make psychological hedonism: a purely descriptive claim which states that agents naturally seek pleasure, or ethical hedonism, the claim that we should act so as to produce our own pleasure.

One constant objection is that where one finds pleasure, another may find pain, leading to a contradiction in what the moral act is. This is only a contradiction for moral absolutists. From a moral relativist's point of view, there is no contradiction.

However, hedonism is not necessarily related to egoism. The Utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and happiness of all. Note that this is altruistic hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make everyone happy. Compare individualism and collectivism.

It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective.

Some of Sigmund Freud's theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure. However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the "death instinct". The death instinct, Thanatos, can be equated to the desire for silence and peace, for calm and darkness, which causes men another form of happiness. It is also a death instinct, thus it can also be the desire for death. The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by objective testing, casts doubt on this theory.

Christian Hedonism is a term coined in 1986 for a theological movement originally conceived by a pastor, Dr. John Piper, in his book, Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist. The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) God with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him. This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure. Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God. Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces "love God" with "enjoy God" as the greatest and foremost commandment.

A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism follows: Assuming one accepts that the primary definition of love is "an emotion of affection," then if one were to love something truly he must also truly enjoy it. In hedonism, obtaining pleasure is a higher goal than any other, including the pursuit of love. God, being a hedonist, loves Himself above all else and therefore enjoys His own presence above all other pleasurable pursuits. He calls men to also pursue all their pleasure only in God, as God also finds this experientially pleasant. Thus, Christian Hedonism is exemplified in relation to Jesus Christ, who justifies God in enjoying a rebellious creation by providing the sacrifice of Himself as the payment allowing God to be pleased with us, and for us to enjoy Him, forever. It could be summed up in this statement: "God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied [pleased] in Him".

Quite a few people equate hedonism with sexuality and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex. As noted above, many (perhaps most) forms of hedonism actually concentrate on spiritual, intellectual, or otherwise non-sexual forms of pleasure. The pursuit of sexual pleasure can certainly be a form of hedonism, but it is not the mainstream one. However, this has become the mainstream use of the word.

More recently, the term Christian Hedonism has been used by the French philosopher Michel Onfray to qualify the various heretic movements from Middle-Age to Montaigne.